A Critical Framework for AI Art
From a small community of pioneering artists who experimented with artificial intelligence (AI) in the 1970s, AI art has expanded, gained visibility, and attained socio-cultural relevance since the second half of the 2010s. Its topics, methodologies, presentational formats, and implications are closely related to a range of disciplines engaged in the research and application of AI. In this paper, I present a comprehensive framework for the critical exploration of AI art. It comprises the context of AI art, its prominent poetic features, major issues, and possible directions. I address the poetic, expressive, and ethical layers of AI art practices within the context of contemporary art, AI research, and related disciplines. I focus on the works that exemplify poetic complexity and manifest the epistemic or political ambiguities indicative of a broader milieu of contemporary culture, AI science, technology, economy, and society. By comparing, acknowledging, and contextualizing both their accomplishments and shortcomings, I outline the prospective strategies to advance the field. The aim of this framework is to expand the existing critical discourse of AI art with new perspectives which can be used to examine the creative attributes of emerging practices and to assess their cultural significance and socio-political impact. It contributes to rethinking and redefining the art/science/technology critique in the age when the arts, together with science and technology, are becoming increasingly responsible for changing ecologies, shaping cultural values, and political normalization.
Keywords: AI Art, Anthropomorphism, Artificial Intelligence, Creativity, Deep Learning, Digital Art, Generative Art, Machine Learning, Mainstream Contemporary Art, New Media Art.
https://www.mdpi.com/2673-6470/2/1/1/pdf.
MDPI Digital 2022, (2), 1: 1-32. ISSN 2673-6470. https://doi.org/10.3390/digital2010001.
Akten, Memo. 2017. “Learning to See.” Memo Akten’s website. http://www.memo.tv/works/learning-to-see.
Anadol, Refik. 2021a. “All Works.” Refik Anadol’s website. https://refikanadol.com.
Anadol, Refik. 2021b. “Keynote Lecture 2.” Art Machines 2: International Symposium on Machine Learning and Art. School of Creative Media, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, 10 June. Segment: 01:16:25 - 01:19:03 (01:18:46). https://vimeo.com/569169027.
Anonymous. 2016. “Rembrandt Goes Digital.” ING Next Rembrandt website. https://www.nextrembrandt.com.
Anonymous. 2017. “SHARE Lab: Exploitation Forensics Press Release.” Aksioma – Institute for Contemporary Art website. http://www.aksioma.org/press/exploitation.forensics.zip.
Arnall, Timo. 2012. “Robot Readable World.” Timo Arnall’s website. https://www.elasticspace.com/2012/02/robot-readable-world.
Bailey, Jason. 2018. “Helena Sarin: Why Bigger Isn’t Always Better with GANs and AI Art.” Artnome, November 26.
Bard, Perry. 2014. “Man with a Movie Camera: The Global Remake” Perry Bard’s website. http://www.perrybard.net/man-with-a-movie-camera.
Barker, Tim. 2012. “Aesthetics of the Error: Media Art, the Machine, the Unforeseen, and the Errant.” In Nunes, Mark, ed. Error: Glitch, Noise and Jam in New Media Cultures. New York and London: Bloomsbury Academic: 42-58.
Barrot, Jean. 1996. “Critique of the Situationist International, Chapter 10: Recuperation.” In Stewart Home, ed. What is Situationism? A Reader. London: AK Press: 46-51.
Basanta, Adam. 2018. “All We’d Ever Need Is One Another.” Adam Basanta’s website. https://adambasanta.com/allwedeverneed.
Bisig, Daniel. 2021. “Granular Dance.” xCoAx, 9^th^ Conference on Computation, Communication, Aesthetics & X. Graz: 176-195.
Blas, Zach. 2016. “Face Cages.” Zach Blas’ Website. http://www.zachblas.info/works/face-cages.
Blas, Zach. 2014. “Facial Weaponization Suite.” Zach Blas’ website. http://zachblas.info/works/facial-weaponization-suite.
Boden, Margaret A. 2010. Creativity and Art: Three Roads to Surprise. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Boden, Margaret A., and Ernest Edmonds. 2019. “A Taxonomy of Computer Art.” In From Fingers to Digits: An Artificial Aesthetic, 23-59. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Bogart, Ben. 2021a. “Zombie Formalist 2021–.” Ben Bogart’s website. https://www.ekran.org/ben/portfolio/2021/07/the-zombie-formalist-2021.
Bogart, Ben. 2021b. “The Zombie Formalist: An Art Generator that Learns.” Art Machines 2: International Symposium on Machine Learning and Art Proceedings. School of Creative Media, City University of Hong Kong: 165-166.
Böhlen, Marc. 2020. “AI Has a Rocket Problem.” Medium, 3 August. https://medium.com/swlh/ai-has-a-rocket-problem-6949c6ed51e8.
Brain, Tega, Julian Oliver, and Bengt Sjölén. 2021. “Asunder.” Project website. https://asunder.earth.
Brain, Tega. 2021. “Towards a Natural Intelligence.” Plenary 3: Biology and Algorithms Keynote, Art Machines: International Symposium on Machine Learning and Art. School of Creative Media, City University of Hong Kong, 12 June.
Brambilla, Marco. 2019. “Nude Descending a Staircase No. 3.” Marco Brambilla’s website. https://www.marcobrambilla.com/selected-works.
Broad, Terence. 2016. “Blade Runner—Autoencoded.” Terence Broad’s website. https://terencebroad.com/works/blade-runner-autoencoded.
Broad, Terence. 2020. “Teratome.” Terence Broad’s website. https://terencebroad.com/works/teratome.
Broad, Terrence, Frederic Fol Leymarie, and Mick Grierson. 2020. “Amplifying the Uncanny.” xCoAx, 8^th^ Conference on Computation, Communication, Aesthetics & X: 33-42.
Browne, Kieran. 2020. “Who (or what) is an AI Artist?” Preprint. https://kieranbrowne.com/publications/who_or_what_is_an_ai_artist.pdf.
Bunz, Mercedes, and Eva Jäger. 2021. “Inquiring the Backends of Machine Learning Artworks: Making Meaning by Calculation.” Art Machines 2: International Symposium on Machine Learning and Art Proceedings. School of Creative Media, City University of Hong Kong: 96-97.
Buolamwini, Joy, and Timnit Gebru. 2018. “Gender Shades: Intersectional Accuracy Disparities in Commercial Gender Classification.” Proceedings of the 1^st^ Conference on Fairness, Accountability and Transparency, 81: 77-91. https://proceedings.mlr.press/v81/buolamwini18a.html.
Burbano, Andrés, and Ruth West, eds. 2020. “AI, Arts & Design: Questioning Learning Machines.” Artnodes, (26): 1-9.
Caldas Vianna, Bruno. 2020. “Generative Art: Between the Nodes of Neuron Networks” Artnodes, (26): 1-7.
CDV Lab. 2020. “Portraits of No One.” CDV Lab website. https://cdv.dei.uc.pt/portraits-of-no-one.
Cetinić, Eva, and James She. 2021. “Understanding and Creating Art with Ai: Review and Outlook.” Preprint (19 February). https://arxiv.org/pdf/2102.09109.
Chollet, François. 2017. “GANism.” François Chollet’s Twitter feed, Jul 13. https://twitter.com/fchollet/status/885378870848901120.
Chung, Sougwen. 2020. “Selected Works by Sougwen Chung.” Sougwen Chung’s website. https://sougwen.com/artworks.
Cohen, Harold. 1995. “The further exploits of AARON, painter.” Stanford Humanities Review, (4), 2: 141-158.
Colton, Simon, and Blanca Pérez Ferrer. 2021. “GANlapse Generative Photography.” Proceedings of the 12^th^ International Conference on Computational Creativity.
Colton, Simon. 2012. “The Painting Fool: Stories from Building an Automated Painter.” Computers and Creativity: 3-38.
Crawford, Kate, and Trevor Paglen. 2019. “Excavating AI: The Politics of Training Sets for Machine Learning.” Project website. https://excavating.ai.
Crawford, Kate, and Vladan Joler. 2018. “Anatomy of an AI System.” Project website. https://anatomyof.ai.
Crawford, Kate. 2021. Atlas of AI: Power, Politics, and the Planetary Costs of Artificial Intelligence. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
Curtis, Adam. 2002. “The Century of the Self.” Written and directed by Adam Curtis. Aired 17 March on BBC Two. https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00ghx6g.
Curtis, Adam. 2011. “All Watched Over by Machines of Loving Grace.” Written and directed by Adam Curtis. Aired 23 May on BBC Two. https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b011lvb9.
Czarnecki, Gina. 2018. “Artworks.” Gina Czarnecki’s website. https://www.ginaczarnecki.com/artworks.
Daniele, Antonio, and Yi-Zhe Song. 2019. “AI + Art = Human.” Proceedings of the 2019 AAAI/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society: 155-161.
Daniele, Antonio, Caroline Di Bernardi Luft, and Nick Bryan-Kinns. 2021. “What Is Human? A Turing Test for Artistic Creativity.” EvoMUSART. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 12693.
Debord, Guy. 1994. Society of the Spectacle. New York: Zone Books.
Denning, Peter J., and Ted G. Lewis. 2019. “Intelligence May Not Be Computable.” American Scientist, (107), 6: 346.
Dewey-Hagborg, Heather. 2013. “Stranger Visions.” Heather Dewey Hagborg’s website. https://deweyhagborg.com/projects/stranger-visions.
Dewey-Hagborg, Heather. 2019. “How do You See Me.” Heather Dewey-Hagborg’s website. https://deweyhagborg.com/projects/how-do-you-see-me.
Disley, Martin. 2021. How They Met Themselves. Martin Disley’s website. http://www.martindisley.co.uk/how-they-met-themselves.
Disnovation.org (Nicolas Maigret and Maria Roszkowska). 2017. “Predictive Art Bot V3.” Nicolas Maigret’s website. http://peripheriques.free.fr/blog/index.php?/works/2017-predictive-art-bot-v3.
Disnovation.org (Nicolas Maigret and Maria Roszkowska). 2021. “The Museum of Failures.” Project website. https://disnovation.org/mof.php.
Dixon, Steve. 2020. Cybernetic-Existentialism: Freedom, Systems, and Being-for-Others in Contemporary Arts and Performance. New York: Routledge.
Driessens and Verstappen. 2019. “Pareidolia.” Driessens and Verstappen’s website. https://notnot.home.xs4all.nl/pareidolia/pareidolia.html.
Dunne, Anthony, and Fiona Raby. 2013. Speculative Everything: Design, Fiction, and Social Dreaming. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Eaton, Scott. 2020. “Entangled II.” Scott Eaton’s website. http://www.scott-eaton.com/2020/entangled-ii.
Elgammal, Ahmed. 2018. “When the Line Between Machine and Artist Becomes Blurred.” The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/when-the-line-between-machine-and-artist-becomes-blurred-103149.
Elgammal, Ahmed. 2019. “AI is Blurring the Definition of Artist.” American Scientist, (107), 1: 18–21.
Elliott, Luba. 2018. “Towards a Comprehensive Critique of Technological Art.” In Sally Golding, ed. Parsing Digital: Conversations in Digital Art by Practitioners and Curators. London: Austrian Cultural Forum: 38-47.
Eltes, Jonas. 2017. “Lost in Computation.” Jonas Eltes’ website. https://jonaselt.es/projects/lost-in-computation.
Elwes, Jake. 2016. “Machine Learning Porn.” Jake Elwes’ website. https://www.jakeelwes.com/project-mlporn.html.
Elwes, Jake. 2017. “Closed Loop.” Jake Elwes’ website. https://www.jakeelwes.com/project-closedLoop.html.
Elwes, Jake. 2020. “The Zizi Show.” Jake Elwes’ website. https://www.jakeelwes.com/project-zizi-show.html.
Feingold, Ken. 2021. “Works.” Ken Feingold’s website. https://www.kenfeingold.com.
Fondazione Prada. 2020. “Kate Crawford | Trevor Paglen: Training Humans.” Fondazione Prada website. https://www.fondazioneprada.org/project/training-humans.
Forbes, Angus G. 2020. “Creative AI: From Expressive Mimicry to Critical Inquiry.” Artnodes, (26): 1-10.
Frizot, Michel. 1998. “Light Machines: On the Threshold of Invention.” In Michel Frizot, Pierre Albert and Colin Harding, eds. A New History of Photography, 15-22. New York: Könemann.
Fuchs, Natalia, Peter Kirn, Chris Salter, Emilio Vavarella, and Moises Horta Valenzuela. 2020. “AI Art Manifesto.” Futurological Congress x Transart.
Gagosian. 2021. “Anselm Kiefer.” Gagosian Gallery website. https://gagosian.com/artists/anselm-kiefer.
Galanter, Philip. 2011. “Shot by Both Sides: Art-Science and the War Between Science and the Humanities.” Artnodes, (11), 1: 92-96.
Galanter, Philip. 2016. “Generative Art Theory.” In Christiane Paul, ed. A Companion to Digital Art, 146-180. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Galanter, Philip. 2020. “Towards Ethical Relationships with Machines That Make Art.” Artnodes, (26): 1-9.
Garcia, Chris. 2016. “Harold Cohen and Aaron—a 40-Year Collaboration.” Computer History Museum website. https://computerhistory.org/blog/harold-cohen-and-aaron-a-40-year-collaboration.
Gerard, David. 2021. “NFTs: Crypto Grifters Try to Scam Artists, Again.” David Gerard’s website. https://davidgerard.co.uk/blockchain/2021/03/11/nfts-crypto-grifters-try-to-scam-artists-again.
Gere, Charlie. 2008. Digital Culture. London: Reaktion Books.
Gershgorn, Dave. 2020. “How a 2018 Research Paper Led Amazon, Microsoft, and IBM to Curb Their Facial Recognition Programs.” OneZero Medium website. https://onezero.medium.com/how-a-2018-research-paper-led-to-amazon-and-ibm-curbing-their-facial-recognition-programs-db9d6cb8a420.
Gilles Deleuze from A to Z. 2011. DVD. Directed by Pierre-André Boutang. Studio Semiotext(e). Available at: https://youtu.be/voRRg3HBQnE.
Goodwin, Ross. 2016. “Sunspring.” YouTube website. https://youtu.be/LY7x2Ihqjmc.
Götz, Ulrike. 2021. “Automatica: The Explosive Intersection of Robots and Music.” KUKA website. https://www.kuka.com/en-at/press/news/2017/09/nigel-stanford-automatica.
Gradecki, Jennifer, and Derek Curry. 2017. “Crowd-Sourced Intelligence Agency: Prototyping Counterveillance.” Big Data & Society, January–June: 1–7. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2053951717693259.
Gradecki, Jennifer, and Derek Curry. 2021a. “CSIA.” Jennifer Gradecki’s website. http://www.jennifergradecki.com/csia.html.
Gradecki, Jennifer, and Derek Curry. 2021b. “Infodemic.” Derek Curry’s website. https://derekcurry.com/projects/infodemic.html.
Gradecki, Jennifer, and Derek Curry. 2021c. “Going Viral.” Jennifer Gradecki’s website. https://jennifergradecki.com/GoingViral.html.
Grba, Dejan. 2017. “Avoid Setup: Insights and Implications of Generative Cinema.” Leonardo, 50 (4): 384-393.
Grba, Dejan. 2020. “Alpha Version, Delta Signature: Cognitive Aspects of Artefactual Creativity.” Journal of Science and Technology of the Arts, 12 (3): 63-83.
Grba, Dejan. 2021a. “Brittle Opacity: Ambiguities of the Creative AI.” xCoAx, 9^th^ Conference on Computation, Communication, Aesthetics & X Proceedings. Graz: 235-260.
Grba, Dejan. 2021b. “Immaterial Desires: Cultural Integration of Experimental Digital Art.” In Helena Barranha and Joana Simões Henriques, eds. Art, Museums and Digital Cultures: Rethinking Change, 57-72. Lisbon: IHA/NOVA FCSH and maat.
Grba, Dejan. 2021c. “The Creative Perspectives of AI Art.” 3^rd^ International Conference Digital Culture and Audiovisual Challenges: Interdisciplinary Creativity in Arts and Technology. Ionian University, Corfu.
Groß, Benedikt, and Joey Lee. 2016. “The Aerial Bold Project.” Project website. http://type.aerial-bold.com/tw.
Grosser, Ben. 2021. “Projects.” Ben Grosser’s website. https://bengrosser.com/projects.
Hacke, Alexander. 2007. “How to Destroy the ICA with Drills.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/music/2007/feb/16/popandrock1.
Hall, Gary. 2016. Pirate Philosophy: For a Digital Posthumanities, 93. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Hastie, Joanne. 2021. “About.” Joanne Hastie’s website. https://joannehastie.com/pages/about.
Hautamäki, Jukka. 2019. “New Parliament.” AI Art Gallery website. http://www.aiartonline.com/community-2019/jukka-hautamaki.
Hautamäki, Jukka. 2021. “Restituo I and II.” Jukka Hautamäki’s website. http://jukkahautamaki.com/restituo-i-ii.
Hawkins, Max. 2021. “Randomized Living.” Max Hawkins’ website. https://maxhawkins.me/work/randomized_living.
Heaney, Libby. 2019a. “Resurrection (TOTB).” Libby Heaney’s website. http://libbyheaney.co.uk/resurrection-totb.
Heaney, Libby. 2019b. “Euro(re)vision.” AI Art Gallery website. http://www.aiartonline.com/highlights/libby-heaney-2.
Hentschläger, Kurt. 2009-2012. “Portfolio.” Kurt Hentschläger’s website. http://www.kurthentschlager.com/portfolio.html.
Hertzmann, Aaron. 2020. “Computers Do Not Make Art, People Do.” Communications of the ACM, (63), 5: 45-48.
Høgh-Olesen, Henrik. 2019. The Aesthetic Animal. New York: Oxford University Press.
Ikeshiro, Ryo. 2021. “Bug.” Ryo Ikeshiro’s website. https://ryoikeshiro.wordpress.com/2021/09/07/bug.
Johnson, Deborah G. 2006. “Computer Systems: Moral Entities but Not Moral Agents.” Ethics and Information Technology, 8: 195-204.
Joler, Vladan, and Matteo Pasquinelli. 2020. “The Nooscope Manifested.” Project website. https://nooscope.ai.
Jordan, Chris. 2021. “Running the Numbers.” Chris Jordan’s website. http://chrisjordan.com/gallery/rtn.
Kalonaris, Stefano. 2021. “Re Sound Art Machines and Aesthetics.” Art Machines 2: International Symposium on Machine Learning and Art Proceedings. School of Creative Media, City University of Hong Kong: 101-103.
Kearns, Michael, and Aaron Roth. 2019. The Ethical Algorithm: The Science of Socially Aware Algorithm Design. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kelly, Stephen. 2016. “Open Ended Ensemble (Competitive Coevolution).” Stephen Kelly’s website. http://stephenkelly.ca/?q=node/30.
Klingemann, Mario. 2021. “Work.” Mario Klingemann’s website. https://underdestruction.com/category/work.
Koblin, Aaron. 2015. “Aaron Koblin.” Aaron Koblin’s website. http://www.aaronkoblin.com.
Kogan, Gene. 2019a. “Machine Learning and Art Panel 1: The Neural Aesthetic.” Art Machines ISCMA, School of Creative Media, City University of Hong Kong. https://youtu.be/4J9i_AyS-gI.
Kogan, Gene. 2019b. “Artist in the Cloud: Towards the Summit of AI, Art, and Autonomy.” Medium website. https://medium.com/\@genekogan/artist-in-the-cloud-8384824a75c7.
König, Sven. 2006. “sCrAmBlEd?HaCkZ!.” YouTube website. https://youtu.be/eRlhKaxcKpA.
Kruger, Barbara. 2021. “Art.” Barbara Kruger’s website. http://www.barbarakruger.com/art.shtml.
Lanier, Jaron. 2000. “One Half a Manifesto.” Edge website. https://www.edge.org/conversation/one-half-a-manifesto.
Lanier, Jaron. 2006. “Digital Maoism: The Hazards of the New Online Collectivism.” Edge website. https://www.edge.org/conversation/jaron_lanier-digital-maoism-the-hazards-of-the-new-online-collectivism.
Leder, Helmut, and Marcus Nadal. 2014. “Ten Years of a Model of Aesthetic Appreciation and Aesthetic Judgments: The Aesthetic Episode — Developments and Challenges in Empirical Aesthetics.” British Journal of Psychology, 105, (4): 443–464.
Levin, Golan, 2010. “Reface (Portrait Sequencer).” Flong (Golan Levin’s website). http://www.flong.com/archive/projects/reface/index.html.
Levin, Golan, and Lingdong Huang. 2020. “Ambigrammatic Figures.” Golan Levin’s GitHub repository. https://github.com/golanlevin/AmbigrammaticFigures.
Levin, Golan, and Tega Brain. 2021. Code as Creative Medium: A Handbook for Computational Art and Design. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Lovink, Geert, ed. 2010. Critical Point of View: A Wikipedia Reader. Amsterdam: Institute of Network Cultures.
Marcus, Gary F., and Ernest Davis. 2019. Rebooting AI: Building Artificial Intelligence We Can Trust. New York: Pantheon Books.
McCormack, Jon, Toby Gifford, and Patrick Hutchings. 2019. “Autonomy, Authenticity, Authorship and Intention in Computer Generated Art.” EvoMUSART 8, vol 11453: 35-50.
McDonald, Kyle, and Matt Mets. 2012. “Blind Self Portrait.” Vimeo website. https://vimeo.com/44489751.
McDowell, Zachary J., and Matthew A. Vetter. 2021. Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality. New York: Routledge.
McIver Lopes, Dominic. 2018. Being for Beauty: Aesthetic Agency and Value. New York: Oxford University Press.
McQuillan, Dan. 2018. “Manifesto on Algorithmic Humanitarianism.” Reimagining Digital Humanitarianism. London: Goldsmiths, University of London.
Mendelowitz, Eitan. 2020. “Intelligent Environments and Public Art.” Artnodes, (26): 1-8.
Meshi, Avital and Angus G. Forbes. 2020. “Stepping Inside the Classification Cube: An Intimate Interaction with an AI system.” Leonardo, (53), 4: 387-393.
Miller, Arthur I. 1996. Insights of Genius: Imagery and Creativity in Science and Art. New York: Copernicus/Springer-Verlag.
Miller, Arthur I. 2014. Colliding Worlds: How Cutting-Edge Science is Redefining Contemporary Art. New York/London: W. W. Norton & Company.
Miller, Arthur I. 2019. The Artist in the Machine: The World of AI-Powered Creativity, 289-295. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Miller, Arthur I. 2020. “Can AI Be Truly Creative?” American Scientist, (108), 4: 244.
Miller, Geoffrey. 2001. The Mating Mind: How Sexual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature, 274-307, and passim. Anchor Books/Random House, Inc.
Mitchell, Melanie. 2019. Artificial Intelligence: A Guide for Thinking Humans. Kindle edition. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
O’Brien, Elle. 2019. “Generative Adversarial Network Self-Portrait.” Elle O’Brien’s YouTube channel. https://youtu.be/Qxhb14SeEaQ.
O’Hear, Anthony. 1995. “Art and Technology: An Old Tension.” Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplement, 38 (Philosophy and Technology): 143-158.
Onformative. 2013. “Google Faces.” Onformative studio website. https://onformative.com/work/google-faces.
Ostachowski, Martin Lukas. 2021. “History of Crypto Art.” Martin Lukas Ostachowski’s website. https://ostachowski.com/about/what-is-crypto-art-or-nft-art/history-of-crypto-art.
Pasquinelli, Matteo. 2019. “How a Machine Learns and Fails—A Grammar of Error for Artificial Intelligence.” Spheres—Journal for Digital Cultures, 5: 1-17.
Paul, Christiane. 2015. “From Immateriality to Neomateriality: Art and the Conditions of Digital Materiality.” ISEA 2015 Proceedings. https://isea2015.org/proceeding/submissions/ISEA2015_submission_154.pdf.
Petrić, Maja. 2017. “Lost Skies.” Maja Petrić’s website. https://www.majapetric.com/lost-skies.
Posters, Bill, and Daniel Howe. 2021. “Big Dada: Public Faces.” Bill Posters’ website. http://billposters.ch/projects/big-dada.
Quaranta, Domenico. 2020. “Between Hype Cycles and the Present Shock: Art at the End of the Future.” DOC#6. Nero Publications.
Quaranta, Domenico. 2021. Surfing con Satoshi: Arte, blockchain e NFT. Milano: Postmedia Books.
Quévillon, François. 2021. “Works.” François Quévillon’s website. http://francois-quevillon.com/w.
Reben, Alexander. 2018. “Five Dollars Can Save the Planet.” Alexander Reben’s website. https://areben.com/project/five-dollars-can-save-planet-earth.
Reckwitz, Andreas. 2017. The Invention of Creativity: Modern Society and the Culture of the New, 324-333. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Rice, Tivon. 2020. “Models for Environmental Literacy.” Tivon Rice’s website. https://tivonrice.com/models.html.
Richardson, Matt. 2012. “Descriptive Camera^TM^.” Matt Richardson’s website. http://mattrichardson.com/Descriptive-Camera/index.html.
Ridler, Anna, and Caroline Sinders. 2021. “Mechanized Cacophonies.” Project website. https://www.mechanizedcacophonies.live.
Ridler, Anna. 2019. “Works.” Anna Ridler’s website. http://annaridler.com/works.
Ridler, Anna. 2021. “Digital Art Practices.” Art, Museums and Digital Cultures Conference, Panel 1 Keynote. 22 April.
Rodcorp. 2004. “William Anastasi: Subway Drawings.” Rodcorp blog. https://rodcorp.typepad.com/rodcorp/2004/06/william_anastas.html.
Rothco. 2018. “JFK Unsilenced.” Rothco agency website. https://rothco.ie/work/jfk-unsilenced.
RyBN. 2021a. “Human Computers.” RyBN website. http://rybn.org/human_computers.
RyBN. 2021b. “Antidatamining.” Project website. http://www.antidatamining.net.
Salavon, Jason. 2021. “The Class of 1967 and 1988.” Jason Salavon’s website. http://salavon.com/work/Class.
Saltz, Jerry. 2019. “What the Hell Was Modernism?” New York Magazine, 30 September.
Schmieg, Sebastian. 2021. “Sebastian Schmieg.” Sebastian Schmieg’s website. https://sebastianschmieg.com.
Schwab, Katharine. 2018. “An AI Learned to Make Fireworks, and They’re Mesmerizing.” Fact Company online article. https://www.fastcompany.com/90156087/an-ai-learned-to-make-fireworks-and-theyre-mesmerizing.
Shanken, Edward A. 2016. “Contemporary Art and New Media: Digital Divide or Hybrid Discourse?” In Christane Paul, ed. A Companion to Digital Art, 463–481. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Sherwin, Martin J. 2020. Gambling with Armageddon: Nuclear Roulette from Hiroshima to the Cuban Missile Crisis, 15-16, 369-380, and passim. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
Shinseungback Kimyonghun. 2021. “Works.” Shinseungback Kimyonghun’s website. http://ssbkyh.com/works.
Simon, Taryn. 2021. “Image Atlas.” Taryn Simon’s website. http://tarynsimon.com/works/image_atlas.
Snell, Ben. 2020. “Inheritance.” Ben Snell’s website. http://bensnell.io/inheritance-ii.
Stallabrass, Julian. 2006. Contemporary Art: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Szegedy, Christian et al. 2015. “Going Deeper with Convolutions.” IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR): 1-9.
Taylor, Grant D. 2014. When the Machine Made Art: The Troubled History of Computer Art. New York and London: Bloomsbury Press.
TEDx Talks. 2018. “Five dollars can save the planet | Alexander Reben | TEDxSanFrancisco.” TEDx Talks YouTube channel. https://youtu.be/8QUq8JTvoNM.
Thomas, Paul Rowlands 2011. “Transdisciplinary Strategies for Fine Art and Science.” Artnodes, (11): 112-116.
Thompson, Jeff. 2017. “I Touch You and You Touch Me.” Jeff Thompson’s website. https://www.jeffreythompson.org/i-touch-you-and-you-touch-me.php.
Thompson, Jeff. 2020. “Human Computers.” Jeff Thompson’s website. https://www.jeffreythompson.org/human-computers.php.
Todorović, Vladimir. 2021. “The Running Nude.” Vladimir Todorović’s website. https://tadar.net/portfolio/the-running-nude.
Tokui, Nao. 2021. “Works.” Tokui Nao’s website. http://naotokui.net/works.
Tresset, Patrick. 2019. “Human Studies.” Patrick Tresset’s website. https://patricktresset.com.
Tromble, Meredith. 2020. “Ask Not What A.I. Can Do for Art... but What Art Can Do for A.I.” Artnodes, (26): 1-9.
Van Arman, Pindar. 2016. “Teaching Creativity to Robots.” TEDx Talks YouTube channel. https://youtu.be/YYu0PdJSZcA.
Verostko, Roman. 2019. “Roman Verostko, Artworks since 1947.” Roman Verostko’s website. http://www.verostko.com.
Victoria/ACM SIGGRAPH. 2021. “SPARKS: Creative Coding: Generative / Algorithmic Art and the Exploration of Authorship and Authenticity.” SPARKS Event announcement, 3 September. ACM SIGGRAPH 2021 Digital Arts Community website. https://dac.siggraph.org/creative-coding.
Wang, Panqu, and Garrison W. Cottrell. 2017. “Central and Peripheral Vision for Scene Recognition: A Neurocomputational Modeling Exploration.” Journal of Vision, 17, (4), 9: 1-22.
White, Tom. 2021. “Perception Engines 2018” and “Perception Engines 2021.” Tom White’s website. https://drib.net/about.
Wiener, Norbert. 1988. The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society. Boston: Da Capo Press.
Wilson, Stephen. 1995. “Artificial Intelligence Research as Art.” Stanford Humanities Review, 4, (2), Constructions of the Mind: 171-186.
Wilson, Stephen. 2002. Information Arts: Intersections of Art, Science and Technology, 786-811. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Winner, Langdon. 1980. “Do Artifacts Have Politics?” Daedalus, 109, 1: 121-136.
Wischnewski, Miles, and Marius V. Peelen. 2021. “Causal Neural Mechanisms of Context-Based Object Recognition.” eLife, 10, e69736.
Wodiczko, Krzysztof. 2021. “Projections.” Krzysztof Wodiczko’s website. https://www.krzysztofwodiczko.com/public-projections.
Yi, Huang. 2021. “Huang Yi & KUKA.” Huang Yi’s website. https://huangyistudio.com/huangyiandkuka.
Zeilinger, Martin. 2021. Tactical Entanglements: AI Art, Creative Agency, and the Limits of Intellectual Property. Lüneburg: meson press.
Zhang, Weidi. 2018. “Lavin.” Weidi Zhang’s website. https://www.zhangweidi.com/lavin.
Żylińska, Joanna. 2020. AI Art: Machine Visions and Warped Dreams. London: Open Humanities Press.